Key pointsUsable hosts in a subnet = 2^(host bits) − 2.TCP congestion: window doubles in slow start, +1 MSS per RTT after the threshold.On timeout, threshold = cwnd / 2 and cwnd = 1 MSS.
Formulas & factsTransmission delayL / BPropagation delayd / vStop & wait efficiency1 / (1 + 2a), a = Tp / TtGBN / SR windowN / (1 + 2a)Min frame (CSMA/CD)L ≥ 2 × Tp × B